Portuguese–Safavid War (1621–1630)

The Portuguese–Safavid War (1621–1630), alternatively known as Bandel War,^[1] was a series of military conflicts between the Portuguese Estado da Índia and the Safavid Empire over control of ports and islands in the Persian Gulf. The war began after the Portuguese constructed a fort on Qeshm, provoking Shah Abbas I to expel the Portuguese from Hormuz and Qeshm. Despite losing Hormuz in 1622, the Portuguese raided the Persian Gulf and repelled Safavid invasions of Basra. Hostilities ended with a peace agreement around 1630.

At the beginning of the 17th century, Shah Abbas I began moving closer to Portuguese strongholds in the Persian Gulf. Allahverdi Khan conquered Lar in 1601–1602 and Bahrain in 1602, a Portuguese protectorate. The Portuguese viewed this as an act of aggression, which strained diplomatic relations.^[2]

With the return of the first mission to Goa in 1603, another Augustinian mission departed for Persia that same year. They were accompanied by Hosayn Ali Beg and Luís Pereira de Lacerda, who had been appointed ambassador to Shah Abbas I to recover Bahrain and pacify Portuguese–Safavid relations.^[2] In 1615, the Safavids signed an offensive alliance with the English East India Company, and by 1619, negotiations between the Persians and Portuguese–Spanish authorities had ended.^[2]

After the Safavid seizure of Bahrain, Bandar Abbas, and Qeshm, Lisbon decided to dispatch Rui Freire de Andrade to Hormuz in 1618.^[3] His orders were to "trace and destroy any foreign European ships that tried to establish trade connections with Persia… [and] patrol the Hormuz Straits and the mouth of the Red Sea… in order to seize ships sailing with forbidden goods or ships not in possession of Portuguese cartazes". Later, on 15 January 1619, he was also instructed to erect a fort on Qeshm, an island held by the Persians since 1614. Rui Freire eventually arrived at Hormuz on 20 June 1620^[3] after a disastrous voyage.^[4]

After dealing with affairs at Hormuz and fighting a costly naval battle against the English at Jask, Rui Freire turned his attention to Qeshm. The Portuguese captain of Hormuz fort, Dom Francisco de Sousa, opposed the construction of a fort, warning that it would end peaceful relations with Persia. The Shah of Hormuz, in contrast, supported the plan and even offered men and funds.^[5]

Overriding the captain's objections, Rui Freire proceeded. On 7 May 1621, a fleet of 1,000 Portuguese arquebusiers, 500 Portuguese musketeers and 1,000 Hormuzi men sailed from Hormuz to Qeshm. 1,000 Persian cavalry on the beach were driven back by naval bombardment, allowing construction of the fortress to begin immediately.^[6]

By late June Shah Abbas I learned of the fort's construction.^[7] According to English reports, the Shah regarded the fort as a casus belli and declared his intention to expel the Portuguese from Hormuz and Qeshm.^[7][8] Although he initially attempted to avoid war by sending an Augustinian envoy to Hormuz, Shah Abbas eventually dispatched a force of 10,000 men under Abdullah Khan to Qeshm.^[8][9]

Initially, the siege caused the Portuguese no major issues, they were free to sail the waters around Hormuz and even conducted a raid on the Safavid fort at Laft. The situation changed, however, upon the arrival of the English squadron. After negotiations between Rui Freire de Andrade and Commander Edward Monnox failed, the English bombarded the fort, forcing the Portuguese to surrender. Freire was arrested, having been delayed by his own hesitation to capitulate.^[10]

Freire eventually escaped English captivity,^[11] but the Persians had already begun the siege of Hormuz.^[12]

In the ensuing war,^[2] Portugal lost Hormuz in 4 May 1622^[12] and Persian forces invaded Oman to occupy Sohar.^[2] However, Abbas failed to get English assistance to take Muscat, and the Dutch remained uninterested in supporting the Shah's expansion in exchange for commercial privileges.^[2][13]

The loss of Hormuz was a major psychological blow, as it had been one of Afonso de Albuquerque's conquests.^[14] However, it did not lead to the collapse of the Estado da Índia,^[14] nor did it end the conflict.^[2] Authorities in Goa responded with warships led by Rui Freire de Andrada and Nuno Álvares Botelho to "scour" the Persian Gulf, where they raided Persian shipping and burned coastal ports which the Persians were unable to defend because they lacked a fleet.^[2][13][15] Despite this, the Portuguese were unable to retake Hormuz,^[14] and all attempts to recapture it had ended by 1624.^[16]

In the winter of 1622–23, Imam Quli Khan attempted to attack Muscat, seeking to follow up on the previous year's success. Despite being denied English naval support, the Khan moved forward with the help of Arab allies, but his force was quickly repelled upon the arrival of commander Rui Freire de Andrade.^[17]

Rui Freire immediately transitioned to the offensive, raiding coastal towns that supported the Persians before initiating a siege of Hormuz. However, since no reinforcements arrived from Goa, Freire was forced to lift the siege when an Anglo-Dutch fleet arrived at the end of the year.^[18]

Following the capture of Baghdad, Shah Abbas I targeted Basra to weaken the Portuguese presence and trade.^[19] When the ruler, Afrasiyab, refused Safavid vassalage, Imam Quli Khan was sent toward the city.^[19]

Afrasiyab allied with the Portuguese,^[20] who sent five galliots under Dom Gonçalo da Silveira.^[16][21] The Portuguese fleet bombarded the Safavid camp from the Karun River and forced the Safavids to retreat.^[19]

By spring 1625, the Safavids launched another invasion with 30,000 men. But before a battle could take place, the Safavids retreated to attend other conflicts elsewhere.^[21]

After asserting control over Muscat and several smaller coastal ports in Oman,^[22] the Portuguese attacked and plundered Qeshm during the winter of 1627–1628^[23] or 1629–1630.^[22] This final major raid pushed Imam Quli Khan to begin ceasefire discussions.^[23]

Rui Freire's destructive raids gradually exhausted the Persians,^[24] so much so that by 1628, Imam Quli Khan had already begun negotiating truces with Rui Freire without Abbas's knowledge.^[2] Following the Shah's death in January 1629,^[13][24] a peace agreement was settled in 1629–1630.^[2][b] Under its terms, the Portuguese agreed to end their "reign of terror" against the Safavid coast and shipping.^[13] In return, they were granted permission to establish a factory at Kong, receiving half of the port's customs revenue^[13][26] and the right to trade there on the same terms as the English at Bandar Abbas.^[26] Imam Quli Khan also agreed to pay tribute to the Portuguese for the continued use of Qeshm, though these payments allegedly stopped after the Khan's execution.^[22][27]

With peace established, hostilities temporarily ceased, and the Hormuz question was frozen for a time.^[28] Hostilities would commence once again in 1650.^[2]

• Matthee, Rudolph; Flores, Jorge (2011). Rudolph Matthee; Jorge Flores (eds.). "Portugal, the Persian Gulf and Safavid Persia". Acta Iranica (52). Peeters. ISBN 978-90-429-2448-2.
• Floor, Willem M.; Potts, D. T. (November 21, 2024). Qeshm: The History A Persian Gulf Island. Mage Publishers Incorporated. ISBN 978-1-949445-86-2.
• Floor, Willem M. (2006). A political and economic history of five port cities, 1500-1730. Washington, DC: Mage Publishers. ISBN 978-1-933823-12-6.
• Matthee, Rudolph (2006). "Basra between Arabs, Turks and Iranians". academia.edu. University of Delaware.
• Steensgaard, Niels (March 15, 2017). The Asian Trade Revolution. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-77145-8.
• Boxer, Charles Ralph (1935). "Anglo-Portuguese Rivalry in the Persian Gulf 1615–1635". In Edgar Prestage (ed.). Chapters in Anglo-Portuguese Relations. Watford, Hertfordshire: Voss and Michael. pp. 46–129.